NATURE

The Ottoman state was founded by Osman Gazi of the Kayı branch of the Oghuz Turks and lasted from the end of the 13th century until 1922. In that time 36 sultans sat on the throne. The sultan stood at the top of the military, political and legal order, and his decrees were known as fermans. After the conquest of Istanbul in 1453 the sultans also saw themselves as heirs to the Roman Empire and took the title Kayser-i Rûm. Here is the full list, period by period.Note: dates for the earliest reigns differ slightly between sources.

We use analogies all the time, often without noticing. When two things are alike in some ways, we tend to assume they are alike in others too. That simple move has a name in logic: reasoning by analogy. Here is what it means, where it is used and why its conclusions should be handled with care.

The word lagoon comes from the Italian 'laguna,' used for a lake or pond. Lagoons are usually found along coastlines: a stretch of water separated from the open sea by a natural barrier, so it looks like a calm, enclosed area of its own. In Turkey, for example, lagoons can be seen in the Yeşilırmak, Kızılırmak and Büyük and Küçük Menderes deltas, at Ölüdeniz near Fethiye and at Lake Terkos.

Geomorphology is the branch of geology that describes and classifies landforms and studies the forces and processes that shape them. The word combines the Greek 'geo' (Earth) and 'morph' (form). The American geologist William Morris Davis, often called the father of the field, is credited with shaping it into a discipline in the late 19th century.Here is what you need to know about geomorphology.

The solar system is held together by gravity: the Sun, eight planets and their moons, plus dwarf planets, asteroids, comets and countless smaller bodies. Planets give off no light of their own; they shine by reflecting sunlight as they orbit the Sun. Only five of them, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. So how do the eight planets rank by size? Here is the full list.

Simulation theory is a philosophical idea that questions the reality of our existence. It asks whether the universe and everything in it could be part of a computer simulation run by a far more advanced civilization. Here is what the theory says, where its modern form comes from, and why many thinkers remain unconvinced.

In its broadest sense, a timar was land granted in return for a defined service to the state, in place of a salary. The word comes from Persian and is associated with meanings such as care and tending. So what exactly was the timar system, how did it work in the Ottoman Empire, and what did it achieve?

Palaeography is the discipline whose main task is to read old handwriting correctly and to work out when and where it was written. A person who works in this field is called a palaeographer. Palaeographers decipher the alphabets used throughout history and help us read documents, which makes them important figures in shedding light on historical events. Here is what the field is all about.

Ethnography is known as a qualitative research method built on the diversity of cultures, both at home and abroad. It involves hands-on, on-the-spot learning and matters wherever people are involved. It is the primary method of social and cultural anthropology, yet it is also an integral part of the social sciences and humanities in general, and it borrows its methods from many fields, including the natural sciences. Here is what you need to know about it.

Philology covers the history of language in all its aspects, including the historical study of literary texts. It is a field of careful textual analysis that usually works close to literary history. Its main focus is historical development: it helps establish the authentic, original form of a text and, through that, what the text actually means.In short, philology is the branch of knowledge concerned with the structure of a language or languages, how they developed over time and how they relate to one another. Here is what you need to know about it.

When people think of witches, pointy hats and brooms usually come to mind. But the witch legends told around the world are far creepier than that. From the forests of Russia to the caves of England, from a farm in Tennessee to the mountains of Iceland, these stories have been passed down for generations, and some were once taken as fact.Here are five of the most spine-chilling witch and folklore legends from different corners of the world.

Those who follow daily horoscope comments are no longer satisfied with just star maps; they are also curious about the reflections of the zodiac signs in nature. A spiritual astrology analysis published by the world-famous fashion and lifestyle magazine L'Officiel Ibiza, revealed the ancient trees that represent the inner and spiritual strength of the 12 zodiac signs. We also brought together the most wise beings of nature with the characteristic features of the zodiac signs, referring to this international study for you. Here is the tree that reflects you, the source of your power, and your soulmate... Source: L'Officiel Ibiza

Cappadocia is a magical landscape in the heart of Turkey, spread across Nevşehir and its surroundings. In winter, Cappadocia takes on a completely different spirit. Snowflakes covering the dusty valleys of summer lend a fairy-tale appearance to the fairy chimneys. The weather is generally cold and dry; daytime temperatures average around 0–5°C, while nights can drop below freezing. However, this cold, combined with the region's enchanting silence and tranquillity, offers travellers an unforgettable experience. With fewer summer crowds, lower prices, and the romantic atmosphere provided by the snowy landscapes, Cappadocia transforms into a dreamland during the winter months. So, what to do in Cappadocia in Winter? What are the best places to see in Cappadocia in Winter? Let's explore the beauty of Cappadocia!

Fethiye is a unique holiday destination located in southwestern Turkey, where the Mediterranean and Aegean seas meet. While the region is crowded and bustling with visitors during the summer months, it takes on a much more tranquil atmosphere in October. The weather remains warm, the sea water is still suitable for swimming, and the natural and historical riches become easier to explore. So, what are the best things to do in Fethiye? Can you visit Fethiye in October? And can you swim in Oludeniz in October? Let's explore the beauty of Fethiye together!

October is one of the most enjoyable times to swim in the sea along the coast of Muğla. The scorching heat of summer is behind us, the tourist crowds have largely thinned out, and nature is beginning to recover. Despite this, the sea is still warm; the waters, heated throughout the summer, remain between 23–26°C in October, creating an ideal environment for swimming. While you can enjoy the beach with daytime air temperatures reaching 25–28°C, evenings bring a cooler and more peaceful atmosphere. So, where to swim in Muğla? Where are the best bays to swim in Muğla? And can you swim in Muğla in October? Let's explore the blue beauty of Muğla together!